Volume 42, Issue 1 , June 2026
Improvement and breeding
Somayeh Rahdar; Sedigheh Esmaeilzadeh Bahabadi; Zeynab Mohkami
Abstract
Background and objectives: Indigo plant (Indigofera tinctoria L.) is a species belonging to the Fabaceae family. It is widely distributed in tropical regions worldwide and has been cultivated for centuries as the primary source of indigo dye. In addition to its economic importance as a dye plant, it ...
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Background and objectives: Indigo plant (Indigofera tinctoria L.) is a species belonging to the Fabaceae family. It is widely distributed in tropical regions worldwide and has been cultivated for centuries as the primary source of indigo dye. In addition to its economic importance as a dye plant, it also possesses significant medicinal value. The plant exhibits several therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, neuroprotective, anti-allergic, hepatoprotective, and antispasmodic effects. Phytochemical screening of I. tinctoria has revealed the presence of various biologically active compounds, including tannins, saponins, phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, and essential minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, magnesium, zinc, and sodium. It also contains trace elements such as copper, manganese, cobalt, and molybdenum, as well as vitamins and fatty acids. Since elicitors such as chitosan and carrageenan have been reported to influence the morphological and physiological characteristics of some plants positively, this study aimed to investigate the effects of different concentrations of carrageenan and chitosan on selected morphological and physiological indicators of the true indigo plant.Methodology: This experiment was conducted as a factorial study based on a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications under pot conditions in the research laboratory of the Faculty of Science, University of Zabol, in 2021. The experiment evaluated the effects of different levels of carrageenan (0, 100, 200, and 300 ppm) and chitosan (0, 200, and 400 ppm) on morphological and physiological traits of the plant. The measured morphological characteristics included fresh weight, dry weight, and leaf indices. Physiological parameters included photosynthetic pigments, total phenol, total flavonoid content, antioxidant activity, and the activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using SAS statistical software (version 9.1), and Duncan’s multiple range test was used to compare treatment means at the 5% probability level.Results: The results of this study showed that several traits, including fresh weight, leaf indices, chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, total phenol content, antioxidant activity, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme activity, were significantly affected by foliar application of the biostimulants carrageenan and chitosan. The highest values for leaf length (2.5 cm), leaf width (1.35 cm), leaf area (1.89 cm²), and number of leaves (7.3) were observed under the combined foliar treatment of 200 ppm carrageenan + 400 ppm chitosan. The maximum stem height (1.6 cm) was recorded in the treatment with 300 ppm carrageenan + 400 ppm chitosan. The highest fresh and dry weights (7.34 g and 0.133 g, respectively) were obtained from the 100 ppm carrageenan + 200 ppm chitosan treatment. In addition, the greatest amounts of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll were observed in plants treated with 200 ppm carrageenan + 200 ppm chitosan. Plants treated with 300 ppm carrageenan + 400 ppm chitosan showed the highest levels of total phenols, antioxidant activity, and PAL enzyme activity.Conclusion: In general, the effects of elicitors vary depending on the type and concentration of the elicitor as well as the plant species. Based on the results of this study, carrageenan and chitosan at concentrations higher than 200 ppm can be suggested as effective stimulants for enhancing plant growth and the production of secondary metabolites. In particular, the combined application of carrageenan (300 ppm) and chitosan (400 ppm) improved the phytochemical properties of the indigo plant.
Biological effects of essential oils and extracts
Zhilla Zarei; Nabi Khaliliaqdam; Shahriar Saeidian; Bahaaldin Rashidzadeh; Mohammad Ghadermarzi
Abstract
Background and objectives: Plants possess efficient antioxidant defense systems that neutralize and eliminate toxic levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These systems include both enzymatic and non-enzymatic components. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) is a key enzyme in this defense system, playing a ...
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Background and objectives: Plants possess efficient antioxidant defense systems that neutralize and eliminate toxic levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These systems include both enzymatic and non-enzymatic components. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) is a key enzyme in this defense system, playing a crucial role in regulating the levels of toxic ROS in various intracellular compartments. The expression of APX is modulated during certain developmental stages as well as under biotic and abiotic stress conditions, highlighting the importance of APX activity in controlling hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) levels within cells.
Methodology: In this study, an enzyme extract was prepared from black mulberry (Morus nigra L.), and its kinetic properties were evaluated in the presence of different salts. The activity of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) was determined by measuring the oxidation of the ascorbate substrate at a wavelength of 290 nm, using an extinction coefficient of 18.2 mM⁻¹ cm⁻¹. The optimum temperature for enzyme activity was determined by measuring APX activity at temperatures ranging from 25 to 80 °C in 50 mM Tris–HCl buffer (pH 7.6) at 5 °C intervals. To evaluate thermal stability, the enzyme solution was incubated in a water bath at temperatures between 25 and 80 °C for 30 minutes. The reaction mixture was then maintained at room temperature for 10 minutes, after which APX activity was measured. To determine the most appropriate response of ascorbate peroxidase to the different levels of the studied treatments, linear and non-linear regression analyses were performed due to the limited number of treatments.
Results: The electrophoretic profile of ascorbate peroxidase in blackberry leaf extract revealed two isoenzymes at pH 6.5 and 8 (APX-LI and APX-LII), while one isoenzyme (APX-F) was detected in the fruit extract at pH 6.5. The substrates ascorbate, pyrogallol, and guaiacol increased peroxidase activity at low concentrations; however, at higher concentrations, they exhibited inhibitory effects on enzyme activity, likely due to substrate inhibition mechanisms that help regulate oxidative stress. Nonlinear regression analysis showed that the activities of APX-F and APX-LII followed the Gompertz exponential model, whereas the activity of APX-LI followed a monophasic incremental exponential function. The nonlinear regression analysis of the effect of sodium chloride, based on a planar exponential function with a decreasing phase, indicated that APX-LI is more sensitive to sodium chloride in the environment than APX-LII. In the presence of ferrous sulfate, the slope of APX-LII activity was greater than that of APX-LI, suggesting that APX-LII is more sensitive to ferrous sulfate. The maximum activity of APX-LII was observed at a concentration of 0.138 mM iron chloride. In the presence of zinc sulfate, APX-LII reached 50% of its maximum activity later than the other two enzymes, indicating that this isoenzyme is less sensitive to zinc sulfate in the environment. The optimum temperatures for maximum enzyme activity were 35 °C for APX-F, 30 °C for APX-LI, and 45 °C for APX-LII.
Conclusion: High concentrations of metal ions reduce the plant’s ability to cope with oxidative stress. Based on the results of the present study, the effects of zinc ions (zinc sulfate), iron chloride, iron sulfate, and sodium chloride on peroxidase activity were evaluated. The results indicated that sodium chloride at low concentrations had little effect on peroxidase activity; however, as sodium chloride concentration increased, structural changes occurred, leading to peroxidation. These structural alterations were associated with a significant reduction in enzyme activity, approaching nearly zero in all three isozymes. Zinc ions inhibit peroxidase activity by binding to the enzyme's active site, inducing unfavorable structural changes that interfere with substrate binding and catalytic activity. Nonlinear regression analysis of the activities of the three enzymes (APX-LI, APX-LII, and APX-F) at different temperature levels, based on a two-piece function, showed that the slope of the increasing phase of enzyme activity in the first part of the APX-LI model was greater than that of APX-LII and APX-F. This finding indicates that APX-LI is more sensitive to changes in ambient temperature in blackberries.
Biological effects of essential oils and extracts
Somayeh Ataei Jaliseh; houra pourghafar
Abstract
Background and Aim: The increasing spread of antibiotic resistance, particularly among Gram-negative bacteria, has encouraged the exploration of combined therapeutic approaches involving antibiotics and plant-derived compounds for the treatment of bacterial infections. Therefore, the present study aimed ...
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Background and Aim: The increasing spread of antibiotic resistance, particularly among Gram-negative bacteria, has encouraged the exploration of combined therapeutic approaches involving antibiotics and plant-derived compounds for the treatment of bacterial infections. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of the bioactive compounds allicin and cinnamon on β-lactam-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Materials and Methods: The herbal active compounds allicin and cinnamon were purchased from Sigma‑Aldrich. Twenty clinical strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa obtained from the Pathobiology Laboratory of Razi Hospital were used in this study. The isolates were subjected to standard biochemical tests to confirm identification and ensure bacterial purity. These tests included hemolysin production, oxidase, catalase, and urease activities, growth at 42 °C, and growth characteristics on MacConkey agar (MCA), triple sugar iron agar (TSI), sulfide–indole–motility (SIM) medium, and Mueller–Hinton agar, as well as Gram staining. To evaluate the antibacterial effects of the active compounds, cinnamon at a concentration of 0.5 mg mL⁻¹ and allicin at a concentration of 0.004 mg mL⁻¹ were tested. Antibacterial activity was assessed using the antibiogram method (Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion test) and quantitative determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) using the serial dilution method. The diameter of the bacterial growth inhibition zones around discs impregnated with the active compounds was measured and recorded. For the in-silico analysis, the three-dimensional structures of allicin, cinnamon, and the target proteins were obtained from the PubChem database and the RCSB Protein Data Bank, respectively. Using Discovery Studio software, rotatable bonds, atomic charges, and the center of gravity of the molecules were determined. Molecular docking simulations were performed for the target proteins and repeated independently 200 times. In this study, the Lamarckian genetic algorithm (LGA) was applied, and the resulting data were analyzed. Finally, RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, and RT-PCR were carried out to evaluate the effects of the active compounds on the expression level of the blaIMP gene.
Results: The 20 clinical strains were confirmed as Pseudomonas aeruginosa based on colony morphology, characteristic odor, pigment production on Mueller–Hinton agar, hemolysin production on blood agar, Gram staining (Gram-negative bacilli), positive oxidase test, growth
at 42 °C on nutrient agar, motility, and lack of sugar fermentation on MacConkey agar and TSI media. In the disk diffusion assay, the mean diameter of the growth inhibition zone was 16 mm for 0.004 mg·mL⁻¹ allicin and 17 mm for 0.5 mg·mL⁻¹ cinnamon. The MIC and MBC of allicin were 0.001 and 0.002 mg·mL⁻¹ for one strain, and 0.002 and 0.004 mg·mL⁻¹ for the remaining strains, respectively. For cinnamon, the MIC and MBC were 0.125 and 0.25 mg·mL⁻¹ for one strain, and 0.25 and 0.5 mg·mL⁻¹ for the others. Molecular docking analysis revealed that the minimum free binding energy (ΔG) between cinnamon and β-lactamase was –4.83 kcal·mol⁻¹, whereas that for allicin was –4.12 kcal·mol⁻¹. These results indicate that cinnamon has a stronger inhibitory interaction with β-lactamase and effectively reduces its activity. Compared with the control drug sulfonamide (ΔG = –5.34 kcal·mol⁻¹), the small difference in binding energies suggests that both cinnamon and allicin positively interact with β-lactamase. Furthermore, treatment with sub-MIC concentrations of both compounds resulted in decreased expression of the blaIMP gene in P. aeruginosa.
Conclusion: One of the major challenges in combating pathogenic microorganisms is the increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance. In this study, β-lactam-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains treated with cinnamon and allicin exhibited reduced expression of the β-lactam resistance gene compared to untreated strains, indicating that these compounds can decrease β-lactam resistance. Based on these findings, it is suggested that cinnamon and allicin could be used in combination with conventional antibiotics to treat P. aeruginosa infections, following validation in standard clinical trials.
Improvement and breeding
Homayon Kheyri; Alireza Rajabi Mazhar; Fatemeh Salimi; Seyed Reza Tabaei-Aqdai; Mohamad Souri; Javad Hamzei; Nasim Shabani
Abstract
Background and objectives: The damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) belongs to the Rosaceae family and has been cultivated in Iran for many years for the production of rose water. It is highly valued for its medicinal properties and is often referred to as “fragrant gold.” Damask rose essential ...
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Background and objectives: The damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) belongs to the Rosaceae family and has been cultivated in Iran for many years for the production of rose water. It is highly valued for its medicinal properties and is often referred to as “fragrant gold.” Damask rose essential oil, extracted from its flowers, is among the most valuable and expensive essential oils in the world. Notably, damask rose exhibits considerable genetic diversity, which influences important traits such as flower yield per plant, number of flowers per plant, flower weight, essential oil quality, flower color and shape, and resistance to diseases and environmental stresses. Identifying these variations among different genotypes can help improve crop yield and quality. This study compares rose genotypes from various origins to identify desirable traits for different ecological regions, evaluating the effects of genetic and environmental factors, trait stability, and adaptation to diverse conditions. Ultimately, the goal is to identify superior rose varieties with optimal flower and essential oil yields suitable for the cold semi-arid climate of Hamedan.Methodology: In this experiment, 41 genotypes of Rosa damascena Mill., collected from different parts of the country, were cultivated in a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Ekbatan Research Station, located at the Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center of Hamadan. Each genotype was evaluated under uniform management conditions without the application of specific stress treatments. Since flowers are the economic organ and the main source of active compounds in damask rose, several traits were recorded to identify cultivars compatible with the ecological conditions of Hamadan and capable of producing higher flower yields. These traits included flower yield per plant, number of flowers per plant, number of petals per flower, percentage of dry matter in flowers, fresh weight of petals per flower, ratio of fresh petal weight to total flower weight, flowering duration, plant vigor, plant height, and canopy diameter. Measurements were recorded over three growing seasons from 2006 to 2008. Finally, the data collected were analyzed using PAST, SPSS, and SAS software.Results: The analysis of variance for the traits studied revealed highly significant differences among genotypes for all traits. Genotype, year, and the genotype × year interaction had a significant effect on flower yield and number of flowers per plant at the 1% probability level, and on plant height and canopy diameter at the 5% probability level. In addition, the effects of genotype and year on fresh petal weight per flower, plant height, and canopy diameter were significant at the 1% probability level. Factor analysis indicated that the first factor, as the principal factor, explained about 98% of the total variation. Within this factor, the number of traits, flowers per plant, and flower yield per plant showed positive loadings, reflecting the high diversity among genotypes. Furthermore, the results of principal component analysis confirmed the grouping obtained from cluster analysis; the three groups identified by cluster analysis were clearly distinguished in the principal component analysis. The genotypes in the second group, including Isfahan 8, Isfahan 6, Tehran, and Yazd 2, were identified as superior genotypes. Moreover, a positive and significant correlation was observed between the number of flowers per plant and fresh petal weight per flower with flower yield per plant. Among these traits, the number of flowers per plant had the greatest direct effect on flower yield per plant. Therefore, these traits can be considered as important selection criteria for improving flower yield in damask rose genotypes.Conclusion: This study demonstrated considerable genetic diversity among damask rose genotypes and highlighted the important role of yield-related traits in the selection of superior genotypes. The number of flowers per plant was identified as the most influential trait affecting flower yield and can be used as a primary selection criterion in breeding programs. The genotypes Isfahan 8, Isfahan 6, Tehran, and Yazd 2 are recommended for cultivation under the semi-arid and cold climatic conditions of Hamedan due to their high performance and adaptability.
Phytochemistry (extraction, identification and measurement of active components)
Fatemeh Bakhshi; Mohammad Fattahi; Sanaz Ashrafi-Saeidlou
Abstract
Background and Objective: Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (licorice) is a widely recognized medicinal plant known for its diverse biological properties and rich content of bioactive compounds, including glycyrrhizic acid, phenolics, and flavonoids, which contribute significantly to its antioxidant activity. Efficient ...
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Background and Objective: Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (licorice) is a widely recognized medicinal plant known for its diverse biological properties and rich content of bioactive compounds, including glycyrrhizic acid, phenolics, and flavonoids, which contribute significantly to its antioxidant activity. Efficient extraction of these compounds is essential to fully utilize the plant’s potential. This study aimed to optimize the extraction conditions for these bioactive constituents from licorice leaves using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). The primary objective was to determine the optimal conditions for maximizing the yield of bioactive compounds.Methodology: Licorice leaves were collected, dried, and ground into a fine powder. Extraction was carried out using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) based on a central composite design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM). The effects of three independent variables, temperature (X₁: 22.77–75.22 °C), extraction time (X₂: 1.59–18.40 min), and solvent concentration (X₃: 22.77–75.22%), were evaluated at five levels within predefined ranges to determine their impact on the extraction efficiency of selected phytochemicals. The extraction experiments were performed in 20 runs using an ultrasonic device operating at 120 Hz. The resulting extracts were analyzed for glycyrrhizic acid (GA) content using vanillin reagent with absorbance measured at 535 nm, total phenolic content (TPC) using Folin–Ciocalteu reagent at 760 nm, total flavonoid content (TFC) using aluminum chloride solution at 415 nm, and antioxidant activity via the DPPH radical scavenging assay at 517 nm. All spectrophotometric analyses were performed using a UV-2100 PC spectrophotometer. Statistical analysis, model fitting, and optimization of the extraction parameters were conducted using Design Expert version 10 software.Results: Statistical analysis showed that a second-order regression model provided the best fit for glycyrrhizic acid (GA), total phenolic content (TPC), and DPPH radical scavenging activity, while an interaction model best described total flavonoid content (TFC). All models were statistically significant (P < 0.05), and non-significant lack-of-fit tests indicated good model adequacy. The R² values ranged from 0.745 to 0.798, demonstrating strong explanatory power. Among the factors evaluated, extraction time (B) had the most significant effect on GA (P < 0.05). For TPC, the temperature–time interaction (AB) showed the greatest positive effect (coefficient: 28.41), while solvent concentration (C²) had a highly significant negative effect (coefficient: –25.77). In TFC, the temperature–time interaction (AB) exerted the strongest positive influence (coefficient: 18.13), whereas extraction time (B) had a negative effect. For DPPH radical scavenging activity, solvent concentration (C²) was the most influential variable (coefficient: –16.51), with the temperature–time interaction (AB) also highly significant (coefficient: 17.15). Three-dimensional response surface plots confirmed the complex interactions among variables and highlighted optimal extraction points for each response. Overall, higher temperatures and longer extraction times enhanced TPC and flavonoid yields, although excessive conditions could cause degradation. Solvent concentration critically affected extraction efficiency, with moderate concentrations generally outperforming both very low and very high levels. Based on these results, the optimal extraction conditions were estimated to be a temperature of 57–70 °C, an extraction time of 35–45 minutes, and a solvent concentration of 50–60%.Conclusion: This study demonstrated that the simultaneous optimization of key extraction variables, including solvent concentration, extraction time, and temperature, using response surface methodology (RSM) significantly improves the efficiency of extracting glycyrrhizic acid, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity from licorice leaves. The results emphasized the critical roles of temperature and extraction time in determining yield. The use of RSM, as a robust statistical tool, allowed the identification of optimal conditions with a minimal number of experimental runs. These findings can be applied to optimize industrial extraction processes for licorice secondary metabolites.
Agriculture and horticulture
Sahar Sarafraz; Marzieh Ghanbari Jahromi; Marjan Diyanat
Abstract
Background and Objective: Salinity stress is one of the most significant environmental factors limiting plant distribution worldwide, as it induces a wide range of morphophysiological and biochemical changes. Seaweed extract, widely recognized as a natural biostimulant in modern agriculture, can enhance ...
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Background and Objective: Salinity stress is one of the most significant environmental factors limiting plant distribution worldwide, as it induces a wide range of morphophysiological and biochemical changes. Seaweed extract, widely recognized as a natural biostimulant in modern agriculture, can enhance plant defense mechanisms and improve tolerance to various stresses. Its application has been shown to increase chlorophyll content and enhance photosynthetic efficiency, ultimately contributing to greater biomass accumulation and improved crop yield.
Materials and Methods: This study aimed to evaluate the growth, physiological, and biochemical responses of the medicinal plant Echinacea angustifolia L. under salinity stress and seaweed extract application. Salinity stress was applied at four levels (0, 50, 75, and 100 mM NaCl), and Sargassum johnstonii extract was used at three levels (no foliar application as control, 1 g/L, and 2 g/L). The experiment was conducted as a factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Seeds were obtained from Pakan Seed Company and germinated in seedling trays under greenhouse conditions. After reaching the four-leaf stage, seedlings were transplanted into pots. Salinity treatments were applied via irrigation using sodium chloride solution (50 mL) every four days. To prevent salt accumulation, pots were leached with non-saline water after every three saline irrigations. Salinity stress was maintained for 40 days. Foliar application of the seaweed extract was performed at 10-day intervals, resulting in a total of five applications over the treatment period. At the end of the experiment, during the flowering stage, morphological traits were measured in the greenhouse, and plant samples were harvested for laboratory analyses at the Food Science Laboratory of Islamic Azad University, Nour Branch. Measured parameters included morphophysiological traits (plant height, leaf number, number of lateral branches, and fresh and dry weight of aerial parts), photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a and b), biochemical traits (proline and soluble sugars), and phytochemical characteristics (total phenols, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity).
Results: The results indicated that the main effect of salinity stress was significant for all measured traits. The main effect of seaweed extract was significant for most traits, except proline content and antioxidant activity. In addition, the interaction between salinity stress and seaweed extract had a significant effect on all traits. Salinity at 100 mM NaCl markedly reduced plant growth, including plant height and the fresh and dry weight of aerial parts. Furthermore, the concentrations of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a and b) declined with increasing salinity levels. However, the application of seaweed extract alleviated the detrimental effects of salinity stress on Echinacea angustifolia and moderated its impact. The highest values for most growth-related traits were observed under non-saline conditions with the application of 2 g/L seaweed extract. Overall, increasing the concentration of seaweed extract up to 2 g/L improved plant growth and performance across different salinity levels. At 75 mM NaCl, the highest accumulation of bioactive compounds, including total phenols, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity, was recorded. Increasing seaweed extract concentration further stimulated the production of these compounds. Additionally, salinity stress led to increased accumulation of osmoprotectants such as soluble carbohydrates and proline compared to the control, which likely contributed to enhanced stress tolerance. Among the tested treatments, 2 g/L seaweed extract consistently showed the most positive effects on the evaluated traits, even under non-saline conditions.
Conclusion: Overall, the findings indicate that Echinacea angustifolia is relatively sensitive to salinity stress, with a pronounced decline in growth and yield observed under increasing salinity levels. Although the application of seaweed extract mitigated the adverse effects of salinity, the 2 g/L concentration was the most effective, playing a key role in reducing stress intensity by enhancing plant growth and promoting the accumulation of important metabolites.
Phytochemistry (extraction, identification and measurement of active components)
Marjan Daeihamed; Edris Mahdavi Fikjvar; Sedigheh Naghipour; Leila Mohtashami; Maryam Haddadi; Maryam Naseri
Abstract
Background and Objective: Primula macrocalyx Bunge., a member of the Primulaceae family, grows in the highlands of Guilan Province, Iran. This plant has long been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of respiratory conditions such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and the common cold. However, to date, ...
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Background and Objective: Primula macrocalyx Bunge., a member of the Primulaceae family, grows in the highlands of Guilan Province, Iran. This plant has long been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of respiratory conditions such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and the common cold. However, to date, no medicinal product derived from this species has been developed in Iran. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop a liquid oral formulation of this plant and to evaluate the physicochemical properties of the prepared formulation.Methodology: Following the collection of Primula macrocalyx in June 2020 from the Ulasbelangah region of Guilan Province, ethanolic extracts of the leaves, flowers, and roots were prepared using the maceration method. The plant materials were then analyzed for moisture content, total ash, and acid-insoluble ash. Qualitative phytochemical tests were conducted to identify major bioactive compounds, and the total phenolic and flavonoid contents of the extracts were quantified. During pre-formulation studies, the solubility of the extracts, as well as suitable dosage levels and excipients, were evaluated. Based on these findings, a syrup formulation was developed. The final formulation was subsequently assessed for its physicochemical and quality attributes, including appearance and organoleptic properties, pH, antimicrobial stability, sedimentation, and container closure integrity.Results: The extraction efficiency of Primula macrocalyx (cowslip) was 19.04%, 25.17%, and 21.12% for flowers, leaves, and roots, respectively. Moisture content was 13% in the flowers and roots and 12% in the leaves. Total ash content was 6%, 11%, and 9.5% for flowers, leaves, and roots, respectively, while acid-insoluble ash values were 2%, 3.5%, and 3% for the same organs. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of flavonoids, saponins, and tannins in the leaves; flavonoids and tannins in the flowers; and saponins and tannins in the roots. Total polyphenol content, expressed as gallic acid equivalents, was 41.44, 81.05, and 125.90 in roots, leaves, and flowers, respectively. Total flavonoid content, expressed as isoquercitrin equivalents, was 2.88 ± 0.081 in flowers and 2.26 ± 0.041 in leaves. The foaming index was 333 in leaves, 250 in roots, and less than 100 in flowers. Pre-formulation studies of the cowslip syrup evaluated extract solubility, optimal dosage, excipient selection, and a suitable formulation base. All extracts showed good solubility in water, while the addition of co-solvents such as propylene glycol and glycerin further enhanced solubility. The final syrup formulation met acceptable standards in terms of organoleptic properties, pH, viscosity, preservative efficacy, absence of sedimentation, and proper container closure performance.Conclusion: Given the presence of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids and saponins in Primula macrocalyx, along with the favorable characteristics of the developed formulation, including acceptable organoleptic properties, suitable pH, appropriate flow behavior (viscosity), effective preservative performance, and absence of sedimentation, the prepared syrup can be proposed as a promising herbal product for the management of respiratory disorders.
Identification, introduction, ecology and ethnobotany
Naser Hosseini; Meysam Masoudi; Kobra Ghiasvand; Fatemeh Zeynali
Abstract
Background and Objectives:Climate change poses a significant threat to biodiversity and the distribution of plant species. Allium jesdianum (Piaz-e-Yazdi), a valuable medicinal species in the Zagros Mountains of Iran, has populations damaged by climate change and over-harvesting. This study ...
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Background and Objectives:Climate change poses a significant threat to biodiversity and the distribution of plant species. Allium jesdianum (Piaz-e-Yazdi), a valuable medicinal species in the Zagros Mountains of Iran, has populations damaged by climate change and over-harvesting. This study aimed to identify the most critical environmental factors affecting the distribution of this species and to predict the impact of climate change scenarios on its future habitats.Materials and Methods: This study employed Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modeling to predict the geographical distribution of A. jesdianum. We used species occurrence data along with a set of bioclimatic, soil, and topographic variables. We assessed the impact of climate change on the species' distribution under two scenarios, semi-optimistic (RCP 4.5) and pessimistic (RCP 8.5), for the years 2050 and 2070.Results: According to the percent contribution index, elevation (55.4%), precipitation of the driest month (15.6%), and topsoil bulk density (13.1%) were the most decisive factors in the species' distribution. The model demonstrated excellent performance (AUC = 0.9) and predicted that suitable habitats for this species will decrease by 14% to 23% under future scenarios, with the most severe decline occurring under the pessimistic scenario. Furthermore, suitable habitats are projected to shift toward higher latitudes (33° to 38° N), while suitability is expected to decrease at lower latitudes.Conclusion: These findings emphasize the need for immediate conservation strategies for A. jesdianum. We recommend identifying and managing current and future suitable areas for in situ conservation, as well as for the sustainable cultivation and utilization of this valuable species.
Economic and social position of medicinal and aromatic plants
Vahid Kalantar; Seyed Habibollah Mosavi; Hamed Najafi Alamdarloo
Abstract
Background and objectives: Cultivating crops resilient to thermal and moisture stresses is a recognized strategy for adapting to climate change. In this context, Rosa damascene (Damask rose), with its notable ability to adapt to diverse environmental conditions, represents a potential solution for climate ...
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Background and objectives: Cultivating crops resilient to thermal and moisture stresses is a recognized strategy for adapting to climate change. In this context, Rosa damascene (Damask rose), with its notable ability to adapt to diverse environmental conditions, represents a potential solution for climate change-affected plains. This study investigated the economic feasibility of cultivating this crop to mitigate climate change-induced adverse effects in the Hamadan-Bahar plain, a region impacted by climate change in recent decades. These findings aim to guide adaptive strategies in the agricultural sector of similar regions.Methodology: In this research, we initially projected future changes in climatic parameters (temperature and precipitation) in the Hamadan-Bahar plain under various climate change scenarios using long-term regional climate data and reputable climate prediction models. We then estimated Rosa damascena performance under anticipated future climatic conditions using crop growth simulation models capable of assessing temperature and moisture impacts on plant yield. We next integrated the climate projection and crop growth simulation results within an economic framework. This framework included analyzing Rosa damascene cultivation profitability compared with other prevalent crops in the region's cropping pattern and evaluating climate change's impact on the agricultural sector's net profit. The economic analysis considered production costs, product selling prices, and projected yields to assess economic viability and the potential to offset climate change-induced losses through Rosa damascene cultivation.Results: The climate change projections for the Hamadan-Bahar plain indicated increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation trends in the coming decades. Conversely, the crop performance simulation results demonstrated that Rosa damascena, regarding its inherent resistance to climatic variations and environmental stresses, performed better than other common water-intensive crops in the region under altered climatic conditions. From an economic perspective, the relative increase in Rosa damascene yield will likely increase this crop's share in the region's optimal cropping pattern. Our economic analyses revealed that this shift in cropping pattern and enhanced Rosa damascene production could offset some economic losses from climate change impacts on other crops, increasing the region's agricultural sector net profit by approximately 17.091 billion Iranian Rial (IRR).Conclusion: These findings suggest that expanding Rosa damascene cultivation is a recommendable climate change adaptation strategy for the Hamadan-Bahar plain. This crop exhibits favorable growth and stable performance under anticipated adverse climatic conditions, is economically profitable, and can compensate for some economic losses the agricultural sector incurs from climate change. Therefore, promoting Rosa damascene cultivation can serve as a significant strategy toward sustainable agricultural development and reducing economic vulnerability in similar regions.
Biotechnology
Younes Mahmoudi; Mojgan Soleimanizadeh; Alireza Yavari
Abstract
Background and Objective: In plant tissue culture, improving callus induction and enhancing physiological, biochemical, and metabolic traits is highly important. Using natural elicitors such as yeast extract combined with plant growth regulators can effectively boost bioactive compound production and ...
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Background and Objective: In plant tissue culture, improving callus induction and enhancing physiological, biochemical, and metabolic traits is highly important. Using natural elicitors such as yeast extract combined with plant growth regulators can effectively boost bioactive compound production and improve callus quality. Chrysanthemum morifolium L., a valuable ornamental and medicinal plant, requires optimized in vitro culture conditions to increase beneficial metabolite production. This study investigated the effects of various growth hormones and yeast extract as an elicitor on the biochemical, morpho-physiological, and metabolic characteristics of Chrysanthemum morifolium L. callus under in vitro conditions.Materials and Methods: In this study, we prepared MS culture medium for Chrysanthemum morifolium L. cell cultivation and added various hormonal combinations, including NAA, BAP, and 2,4-D, to optimize callus induction. We disinfected seeds using benomyl fungicide, ethanol, and sodium hypochlorite. We then collected leaf and stem explants from young plants and cultured them in the prepared media. We conducted the experiments in a completely randomized design with five hormonal levels, two explant types, and two light conditions. We also added yeast extract (0, 1000, 1200, and 1400 mg/L) to the culture medium and evaluated its effect on callus characteristics. Finally, we measured various callus traits, including fresh and dry weight, chlorophyll, carotenoids, phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, and others. We performed statistical analysis using SAS software and Duncan's multiple range test.Results: The highest callus induction percentage (96.66%), shortest callus initiation time, and greatest fresh weight, dry weight, and callus volume occurred in treatment E1H5L (leaf explant, 2 mg/L BAP + 2 mg/L 2,4-D under light conditions). Yeast extract at 1000 mg/L showed the best performance in enhancing fresh weight (2.09 g), dry weight (1.128 g), and callus volume (1.35 mm³). Treatments with 1200 and 1400 mg/L yeast extract also had positive effects but were less effective. In the control treatment, chlorophyll a had the lowest content (11.51 mg/g FW), while the 1000 mg/L yeast extract treatment had the highest level (24.33 mg/g FW). For chlorophyll b, the 1000 mg/L treatment also performed best (16.39 mg/g FW). Carotenoids, phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant capacity, anthocyanins, and proline increased with higher yeast extract concentrations, especially at 1400 mg/L. Malondialdehyde content decreased, while catalase and peroxidase enzyme activities significantly increased across all treatments.Conclusion: The optimal yeast extract concentration for improving biochemical, morphophysiological, metabolic, and antioxidant traits was 1000 mg/L. These results highlight yeast extract's potential as an effective tool in plant tissue culture to enhance callus characteristics, supporting its future use in medicinal plant research and agricultural development.
Agriculture and horticulture
Mohammad Hossein Lebaschi; Fatemeh Sefidkon; Ebrahim Sharifi Ashoorabadi; Bohloul Abaszadeh; ءasoumeh Layeghhaghighi; Ahmad Mirjalili; Ali Saki; Ali Hosseini; Niloufar Rezaei; Maryam Makkizadeh Tafti; Meysam Ansari; Mohammad Bakhtiari Ramezani; Samaneh Asadi-Sanam
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Valuable and adapted medicinal plants used in dry farming can create green cover during dry seasons, prevent soil erosion on slopes, and increase rainfall productivity in the vast drylands of Iran. Four species of medicinal plants from the genus Satureja, Satureja bachtiarica, ...
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Background and Objectives: Valuable and adapted medicinal plants used in dry farming can create green cover during dry seasons, prevent soil erosion on slopes, and increase rainfall productivity in the vast drylands of Iran. Four species of medicinal plants from the genus Satureja, Satureja bachtiarica, S. mutica, S. spicigera, and S. sahendica, belonging to the mint family, are perennial, valuable, adaptable, and exclusive to Iran. We used these species in this project under rainfed conditions.Methodology: To test this hypothesis, we conducted four separate experiments in dryland regions near Tehran (Damavand Research Station, affiliated with the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, RIFR) during 2016–2021. In these experiments, we used four Satureja species (S. mutica, S. spicigera, S. sahendica, and S. bachtiarica) as valuable, adapted, and exclusive medicinal plants under a dry farming system. We conducted the field experiments in a split-plot design with three nutrition treatments (30 tons of manure, 10 tons of straw enriched with ammonium sulfate, and a control) as main plots and three plant density treatments (26,666, 40,000, and 80,000 plants/ha) as subplots. The measured traits included plant height, canopy diameter, main stems, dry matter yield, dry/fresh yield ratio, essential oil percentage, and essential oil yield.Results: The trait results across the experimental years showed an increasing trend, demonstrating the growth and tolerance of Satureja species under dry farming in the Damavand region. The highest dry matter yield (1821 kg/ha) and essential oil percentage (2.86%) were observed in S. mutica, the valuable and chosen species, in the third year. In these experiments comparing four Satureja species, morphological and yield traits were high in the control and manure application treatments at high densities for S. sahendica and S. bachtiarica (limited canopy) and at medium densities for S. mutica and S. spicigera.Conclusion: The highest rates for most traits in the control treatment indicated fertilization restrictions and the health of savory produced under dryland farming. Successful cultivation, establishment, and growth of Satureja species in dryland farming demonstrate the adaptability and economic yield of these species under dry farming in cold semi-steppe regions with 300–400 mm of annual rainfall in Iran.
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