Agriculture and horticulture
niloufar Rezaei; Fatemeh Sefidkon; hassan ali naghdibadi
Abstract
The cultivation of medicinal plants such as the Lamiaceae family increasing throughout the world Significantly. Savory considers as an important species in this family which it’s important is due to carvacrol and thymol in essential oil. In order to investigate the effect of planting density ...
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The cultivation of medicinal plants such as the Lamiaceae family increasing throughout the world Significantly. Savory considers as an important species in this family which it’s important is due to carvacrol and thymol in essential oil. In order to investigate the effect of planting density and soil fertility on the physiological traits and antioxidant enzymes activity of savory under rainfed conditions, an experiment in the form of split plots with two factors, fertilizer as the main factor at three levels (control, 30 tons/ha cow manure and 10 tons/ha straw enriched with ammonium sulfate) and the sub-factor, plant density at three levels (2.67, 4 and 8 plants/m2) in the form of a complete block design A random experiment was conducted at Hamand Absard research station (Damavand) in 2017-18 and 2018-19. The analysis of variance showed a significant effect of planting density and organic fertilizers on the physiological traits of savory. The highest RWC (%87.67) and the lowest ELI (%47.19) were observed in the cow manure treatment with 30 tons/ha at a density of 2.67 plant/m2. As the density increased, total chlorophyll and RWC decreased and ELI and MDA and proline increased. Cow manure and straw increased total chlorophyll, proline and RWC and decreased ELI and MDA. The highest activity of CAT, peroxidase and SOD enzyme was obtained in the control treatment and 8 plant/m2 and the lowest in organic fertilizer treatment, 2.67 plant/m2. Increasing the activity of these enzymes to neutralize the reactive oxygen species produced due to water stress is known as a resistance mechanism in plants. Based on the results of this research, it can be said that savory has the ability to grow in rain-fed conditions and has the necessary potential to increase the antioxidant capacity in rainfed conditions.
Agriculture and horticulture
Kosar Taheri Boukani; Abbas Hassani; MirHassan Rasouli-Sadaghiani; Mohsen Barin; Ramin Maleki
Abstract
Background and objectives: Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the mint family (Lamiaceae). Its fresh and dried leaves and essential oils are used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. In recent years, the use of symbiosis with plant beneficial rhizospheric ...
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Background and objectives: Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the mint family (Lamiaceae). Its fresh and dried leaves and essential oils are used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. In recent years, the use of symbiosis with plant beneficial rhizospheric microorganisms including rhizobacteria and endophytic fungi has been considered as a cost-efficient and sustainable strategy to alleviate the adverse effects of environmental stresses such as salinity. Therefore, the present study was conducted in the research greenhouse of Urmia University. It evaluated the effect of inoculation with growth-promoting microorganisms on some growth, physiological, and phytochemical characteristics of basil plants under salt-stress conditions.Methodology: This research was conducted as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replications. The experimental factors were inoculation with microorganisms at three levels (control without inoculation, inoculation with Serendipita indica, and inoculation with a mixture of Pseudomonas areuginosa, P. putida, and P. fluorescens) and salinity stress at four levels (0, 40, 80 and 120 mM of NaCl). For inoculation, the germinated seeds were separately inoculated with S. indica suspension (5×105 spores per ml) and inoculum containing a mixture of Pseudomonas bacteria (1.61×109 cells per ml) and planted in prepared pots. The pots were irrigated with ordinary tap water until the plants were eight-leafed, and from this stage onwards, salinity stress treatments were applied by dissolving different concentrations of NaCl in the irrigation water and continued until the full flowering stage. In the full flowering stage, plant samples were collected and root colonization percentage by fungus, growth parameters (plant height, stem diameter, number and total length of lateral branches, leaf number and area, inflorescence length, fresh and dry weight of leaf and stem), leaf relative water content (RWC), photosynthetic pigments, concentration of leaf nutrients (N, P, K, Na and Cl), essential oil content and yield were evaluated. For essential oil extraction, shade-dried samples were hydro-distilled using a Clevenger-type apparatus.Results: The results showed that due to salinity stress, the percentage of root colonization by S. indica, growth parameters, RWC, photosynthetic pigments, essential oil content, yield, N, P, and K content, and K/Na ratio decreased while Na and Cl content increased. In addition, all evaluated parameters in inoculated plants were higher than in non-inoculated plants except Na and Cl content. The highest and lowest rates of growth parameters, RWC (74.47 and 72.39%), essential oil yield (0.23 and 0.17 ml/pot), and N content of leaves (1.36 and 1.14%) were obtained in plants inoculated with S. indica and non-inoculated plants, respectively. The highest and lowest amounts of chlorophyll a (0.87 and 0.74 mg/g fw), chlorophyll b (0.41 and 0.37 mg/g fw), essential oil percentage (1.24 and 1.05%), K content (5.15 and 3.97%), P content (0.29 and 0.24%) and the K/Na ratio (10.05 and 4.07), were observed in plants inoculated with a mixture of Pseudomonas bacteria and non-inoculated plants, respectively. Also, the lowest Na (1.34%) and Cl (2.93%) accumulation was observed in plants inoculated with Pseudomonas bacteria and S. indica fungus, respectively.Conclusion: According to the results of this study, the use of plant growth-promoting microorganisms (S. indica fungus and a mixture of Pseudomonas bacteria) can alleviate adverse effects of salinity stress on the growth and essential oil production of the basil plant by increasing the absorption of water and nutrients, preserving photosynthetic pigments and reducing the accumulation of toxic ions.
Agriculture and horticulture
M. Salimi Koochi; M. Madandoust
Abstract
Background and objectives: Cumin (Cuminum cymium L.) is an annual plant with delicate stems and a height between 15 and 50 cm. For high yield and increased product quality, consuming the appropriate amount of dinitroaniline herbicides and using mulches to control weeds is important. Therefore, the use ...
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Background and objectives: Cumin (Cuminum cymium L.) is an annual plant with delicate stems and a height between 15 and 50 cm. For high yield and increased product quality, consuming the appropriate amount of dinitroaniline herbicides and using mulches to control weeds is important. Therefore, the use of trifluralin, pendimethalin herbicides, and wheat mulch was investigated in this experiment to investigate the population and growth of weeds, physiological and vegetative characteristics, yield, and percentage of cumin essential oil.Materials and methods: This experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with three replications. In this study, the experimental treatments included 100% and 50% recommended amounts of trifluralin and pendimethalin herbicides alone and in combination with wheat stubble mulch, which was considered together with wheat stubble mulch alone and no weed control (control). Wheat stubble mulch, 5 cm long and equal to 5 tons per hectare, was applied. The herbicide was spread using a 20-liter book-back sprayer with a rain nozzle. Weed species were identified by Zarghan Agricultural Research Station, Fars Province weed experts. After that, quadrats with dimensions of 50 x 50 cm were used to determine weeds' density and dry weight. Three fully opened and fresh young leaves were selected to measure the relative water content of leaves and the chlorophyll content of each treatment. Sampling was done in the morning and before sunrise. Before the end of the growth period, the height and number of branches were measured. After harvesting, yield and yield components (including the number of umbels per plant, the number of seeds per umbel, and the weight of 1000 seeds) were determined. From the harvested seeds in each plot, 50 grams of samples were randomly taken and analyzed to determine the percentage of essential oil. To extract essential oil from the prepared samples, the steam distillation method was used by a Clevenger machine. The percentage of essential oil in each sample was determined. The mean comparison of the studied traits was compared using Duncan's multiple range test at 0.05.Results: The dominant weed species identified in the field included 6 genera and 6 species. The mean comparison results showed that using trifluralin herbicide with the recommended dose + mulch reduced weeds' density and dry weight by 88% and 87%, respectively, compared to no weed control (control). Mulch treatment alone reduced weed density and dry weight compared to control plants by 29.6% and 37.5%, respectively. 85% mulch + trifluralin herbicide at the recommended dose resulted in the highest relative leaf water content. Also, the highest chlorophyll b and total leaf chlorophyll content were obtained for both trifluralin and pendimethalin herbicides in combination with mulch, which showed a significant increase compared to mulch alone and no weed control. The lowest cumin plant height was observed in the weed-infested treatment (control). Among the management treatments, the number of lateral branches in the treatment of 100% of the recommended herbicide dose was more than in the treatment of 50%. Also, adding mulch to the treatments showed a significant increase in lateral branches. Cumin aerial parts dry weight increased by 4% with the 50% dose and 10% with the full dose. With trifluralin herbicides, cumin seed yield increased by 47% and pendimethalin by 45%. By applying mulch management treatments, cumin seed yield increased by 48%.Conclusion: The application of wheat mulch, by increasing leaf water and chlorophyll's relative content, improves growth indicators. In addition to the application of 100% of the recommended dose of trifluralin and pendimethalin herbicides in combination with wheat mulch, which increased the dry weight of shoot and seed yield in cumin, the treatment of 50% of the recommended dose in combination with wheat mulch at a lower level improved these traits. Therefore, due to reduced herbicide consumption, 50% of the recommended dose of trifluralin herbicides in combination with wheat mulch is recommended to control weeds in cumin.
Agriculture and horticulture
M.H. Rad; R. YazdaniBiouki; V. Soltany gerdeframarzi; N. Besharat
Abstract
To investigate the effects of irrigation water salinity (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 dS.m-1) on morphophysiological characteristics of seedless barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) aerial parts, an experiment was conducted using drained big pots in a completely randomized design with three replications at the central ...
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To investigate the effects of irrigation water salinity (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 dS.m-1) on morphophysiological characteristics of seedless barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) aerial parts, an experiment was conducted using drained big pots in a completely randomized design with three replications at the central station of National Salinity Research Center, Yazd during 2018-2021 years. The salinity levels affected the height, diameter, area, and volume of plants canopy, number of new branches, number of new basal shoots, number of leaves per plant, total leaves area, leaf area index, leaf dry weight, leaves damage percentage at high temperature, amount of total chlorophyll, chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids, proline, total sugar, leaf anthocyanins, leaf phenols, and antioxidant activity significantly (P<0.01). Based on the results, B. vulgaris tolerated the salinity stress well. Despite the growth reduction at salinity levels above 9 dS.m-1, plant physiological resistance was observed through the production of secondary osmolytes and survival under saline conditions up to 12 dS.m-1. Accordingly, in suitable barberry production habitats, it is possible to take advantage of water resources and saline soil to grow seedless barberry, especially to increase phenolics, by ture management of the root environment and control of the saturated soil extract salinity up to 12 dS.m-1.
Improvement and breeding
H. Mohammadi; M.R. Pirmoradi; M. Moghaddam; M.H. Shamshiri; M.A. Mirzaabolghasemi
Abstract
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the important plants from Lamiaceae family which is used as a medicinal spicy plant and also as a fresh vegetable. Salicylic acid (SA) is one of the most important plant growth regulators that regulates growth and physiological development and metabolic processes ...
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Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the important plants from Lamiaceae family which is used as a medicinal spicy plant and also as a fresh vegetable. Salicylic acid (SA) is one of the most important plant growth regulators that regulates growth and physiological development and metabolic processes of the plant. Its application under salinity stress conditions decreases the effects of salinity toxicity and makes resistance in the plants. To investigate the basil (O. basilicum cv. Keshkeny luvelou) physiological and biochemical responses to salinity stress and SA, a factorial pot experiment was conducted based on a completely randomized design with three replications in the research greenhouse of Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan. Experimental treatments included salinity at four levels (0, 30 ,60, and 90 mM) and SA at five levels (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 mM). The results showed that salinity stress reduced the amount of chlorophyll florescence, chlorophylls a and b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, relative water content, and essential oil percentage. The SA treatment decreased the negative effects of salinity stress on the plant and improved essential oil percentage. Also, salinity stress increased the amount of proline, soluble carbohydrate, phenol, antioxidant activity, electrolyte leakage, leaf and root sodium, and chlorine, but the SA treatment at some salinity stress levels caused to decrease and/or increase these traits. Overall, SA improved the physiological and biochemical characteristics of basil under salinity stress through increasing osmolytes production and resulted in increasing nutrient uptake and essential oil percentage of the plant.
Agriculture and horticulture
Z. Azimzadeh; A. Hassani; B. Abdollahi Mandoulakani; E. Sepehr
Abstract
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the fam. lamiaceae that is used as a spice for flavoring foods and also for medicinal purposes as carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, sedative, stomachic, diuretic, antitussive, and antirheumatic. To evaluate the effects of ...
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Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the fam. lamiaceae that is used as a spice for flavoring foods and also for medicinal purposes as carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, sedative, stomachic, diuretic, antitussive, and antirheumatic. To evaluate the effects of salinity stress on some growth and physiological parameters, essential oil content, and nutrients absorption in two oregano subspecies, a factorial pot experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications. The experimental factors included two subspecies of oregano (ssp. vulgare and ssp. gracile) and salinity stress at four levels (0, 25, 50, and 100 mM of NaCl). The results showed that the salinity stress had a significant effect on the measured parameters. With increasing the salinity level, the growth characteristics (plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves, and dry matter yield), leaf relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll index (SPAD), percentage and essential oil yield, N, P, and K content and K/Na ratio in leaves and roots decreased, while Na and Cl content in leaves and roots of both subspecies increased. The two subspecies response to the different levels of salinity stress was different. The higher Na accumulation in the roots and higher K/Na ratio in the leaves compared to the roots indicated the ability of oregano subspecies to limit the transfer and accumulation of Na+ ions in their shoots. Overall, the findings of this study showed that the ssp. vulgare had higher tolerance to the salinity stress than ssp. gracile due to the less accumulation of Na and Cl ions, higher K/Na ratio, and lower reduction in chlorophyll index and dry matter yield.
Agriculture and horticulture
F. Darabi; N. Abbasi; M.J. Zarea
Abstract
To investigate the role of putrescine and 24-epibrassinolide on the morphophysiological changes of Ocimum basilicum L. in the water deficiency tolerance, an experiment was conducted as a factorial split plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the research farm of Agriculture ...
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To investigate the role of putrescine and 24-epibrassinolide on the morphophysiological changes of Ocimum basilicum L. in the water deficiency tolerance, an experiment was conducted as a factorial split plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the research farm of Agriculture Faculty, Ilam University during 2017-19 crop years. The experimental treatments included the drought stress at three levels (40, 80, and 120 mm evaporation from Class A evaporation pan) in the main plots and putrescine foliar application at three levels (Put0: 0, Put1: 0.5, and Put2: 2 mM) and 24-epibrassinolide foliar application at three levels (Br0: 0, Br1: 0.5, and Br2: 2 μM) factorially in the subplots. The results showed that the multiple interaction of year, drought stress, putrescine, and 24-epibrassinolide had a significant effect on the traits including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and basil essential oil percentage, so that the foliar application of 2 mM putrescine and 2 μM 24-epibrassinolide at all levels of drought stress, especially 80 mm evaporation from the evaporation pan, caused a further increase in these traits in both years of the experiment, which was higher in the first year than the second one. The optimal irrigation treatment (40 mm evaporation from evaporation pan) with application of 2 mM putrescine and 0.5 μM 24-epibrassinolide and drought stress treatments (80 and 120 mm evaporation from evaporation pan) with application of 2 mM putrescine and 2 μM 24-epibrassinolide had more leaves and secondary branches. The results of this study showed that the drought stress had an important role in reducing the basic factors in basil growth. In general, according to the results obtained, the foliar application of 2 mM putrescine with 2 μM 24-epibrassinolide to improve the physiological activities and increase the essential oil content, and 2 mM putrescine with 0.5 μM 24-epibrassinolide to increase the seed yield could be recommended in basil under drought stress conditions.
Agriculture and horticulture
B. Andalibi; M. Mohammadi Azar; B. Esmailpour; F. Shekari
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate the effects of salicylic acid (SA) and nanosilicon (n-Si) on some morphophysiological characteristics and essential oil of Lallemantia iberica under salinity stress and uncontrolled greenhouse conditions as a factorial experiment based on the randomized complete ...
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This study was conducted to investigate the effects of salicylic acid (SA) and nanosilicon (n-Si) on some morphophysiological characteristics and essential oil of Lallemantia iberica under salinity stress and uncontrolled greenhouse conditions as a factorial experiment based on the randomized complete block design in 2018. The experimental factors included sodium chloride (0, 50, and 100 mM), SA (0, 1, and 2 mM), and n-Si (0, 0.5, and 5 mM). The SA and n-Si treatments were applied at the four-leaf stage (once every seven days) and the salinity treatment was applied at the six-leaf stage of the plant (once every four days) until fully ripening seeds of the plant (yellowing 90% of the leaves and capsules). The results showed that under salinity stress, the plant traits including height, aerial parts dry weight, chlorophyll content, and seed yield decreased and proline and essential oil increased. The application of SA and n-Si improved these traits under salinity stress. The main constituents of L. iberica essential oil included linalool (25%), geraniol (16%), β-cubebene (10.6%), menthyl acetate (9.8%), valencene (3.5%), germacrene-D (2.4%), β-caryophyllene (2.3%), and limonene (1.3%), all of which increased in the salinity treatments compared to the control. The application of SA and n-Si under salinity stress conditions increased limonene, linalool, geraniol, β-cubebene, β-caryophyllene, and valencene and decreased menthyl acetate and germacrene D. In general, the results of this study showed that the application of SA and n-Si could increase the tolerance of L. iberica to salinity stress by creating the osmotic regulation, protecting the content of photosynthetic pigments, and reducing oxidant damage.
Improvement and breeding
B. Esmaielpour; M. Shiekhalipour; M. Torabi-Giglo
Abstract
Soil salinity in arid and semi-arid regions is one of the most important abiotic stresses causing negative effects on the growth and yield of medicinal plants. To investigate the effect of Zn nanoparticles foliar spray at different levels on growth characteristic, antioxidant enzymes, and essential oil ...
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Soil salinity in arid and semi-arid regions is one of the most important abiotic stresses causing negative effects on the growth and yield of medicinal plants. To investigate the effect of Zn nanoparticles foliar spray at different levels on growth characteristic, antioxidant enzymes, and essential oil yield of dragonhead (Dracocephalum moldavica L.) under salinity stress conditions, a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications in the greenhouse of Mohaghegh Ardabili University during 2018-2019. Experimental treatments included salinity stress at four levels (0, 50, 100, and 150 mM of NaCl) and foliar spray with Zn nanoparticles at three levels (0, 100, and 500 mg.l-1). Traits including plant height, aerial parts fresh and dry weight, chlorophyll, cell membrane electrolyte leakage, relative water content, proline, antioxidant enzymes, and percentage and yield of essential oil were measured. Results showed that salinity significantly decreased plant height, shoot fresh and dry weight, chlorophyll, the relative water content of leaves, and essential oil yield, and increased electrolyte leakage from cell membranes and proline content of the leaves. While nano-Zn foliar spray reduced the negative effects of salinity stress by increasing the growth and activity of antioxidant enzymes such as ascorbate peroxidase and superoxide dismutase. Treatment of 500 mg.l-1 nano-Zn caused the best-improving effect on traits including plant height, stem dry weight, chlorophyll, electrolyte leakage, antioxidant enzymes, and essential oil yield under salinity stress conditions. Therefore, the use of 500 mg.l-1 nano-Zn is recommended as a reduction of the negative effects of salinity stress in dragonhead.
Z. Taghizadeh Tabari; H.R. Asghri; H. Abbasdokht; E. Babakhanzadeh sajirani
Abstract
Water deficit has been the major contributor to the decline in plant yield. Soil amendment and certain hormonal agents are some strategies applied to mitigate the adverse effects of drought stress. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of one soil modifier and one growth regulator ...
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Water deficit has been the major contributor to the decline in plant yield. Soil amendment and certain hormonal agents are some strategies applied to mitigate the adverse effects of drought stress. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of one soil modifier and one growth regulator on some physiological and morphological characteristics of Borago officinalis L. under water deficit conditions. The experiment was implemented as a split-factorial in a randomized complete block design with four replications at the research farm of Agriculture Faculty of Shahroud University of Technology, Iran during 2017- 2018. The main plots consisted of three levels of irrigation (usual irrigation every five days, irrigation every 10 and 15 days) and sub-plots consisted of biochar at three levels (0, 5 and 10 t ha-1) and salicylic acid at two levels (0 and 0.5 mM). Based on the results, biochar, salicylic acid, and water deficit factors affected the number of flowering stems, number of stems, stem height, the amount of chlorophylls a and b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids significantly. Interactions between salicylic acid and water deficit levels had the most effects on carotenoids and chlorophyll b. Triple interaction of factors also affected the total dry weight, number of flowering stems, the number of stems, stem height, and chlorophyll b. Generally, water deficit stress decreased the amount of photosynthetic pigments and leaf growth indices of European borage compared to control, and salicylic acid and biochar reduced the negative effects on the amount of photosynthetic pigments. Therefore, the use of biochar as a soil modifier and salicylic acid as a growth regulator seems to be useful in ameliorating some of the negative effects of water stress on Borago officinalis.
A. Hosseini; F. Moradinezhad; M. Khayyat; M.H. Aminifard
Abstract
Calcium is one of the most important minerals involved in determining the quality of the fruit. Excessive waste and quality loss of seedless barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) during harvesting, post-harvest, and storage are some of the important problems in production areas. Foliar application with minerals ...
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Calcium is one of the most important minerals involved in determining the quality of the fruit. Excessive waste and quality loss of seedless barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) during harvesting, post-harvest, and storage are some of the important problems in production areas. Foliar application with minerals can increase the quality, yield, marketability, and reduce post-harvest losses through the provision of plant nutritional needs. Therefore, in this study, the effect of foliar application of calcium chloride and calcium nitrate on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of barberry fruit was carried out in a randomized complete block design. Treatments included control (distilled water), calcium chloride (0.5%), and calcium nitrate (0.5%). The foliar spray was performed in four stages of the growing season. The results showed that the highest mean number of panicles per branch, the number of berries per panicle, the number of berries per branch, and the fruit yield on the branches belonged to the calcium chloride treatment and the lowest amount in the control. The calcium chloride treatment increased the fresh weight diameter and length of branch compared to the control treatment. The highest amount of chlorophylls a and b and total chlorophyll was observed in the leaves of control trees. The effect of calcium chloride and calcium nitrate treatments on the appearance quality and texture of barberry fruit was significant, although it did not affect the chemical properties of the fruit. In general, the results showed that foliar application with calcium chloride and calcium nitrate salts improved the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the fruit compared to control.
Y. Mehrabi; M. Movahhedi Dehnavi; A. Salehi; R. Mohatashami; M. Hamidian
Abstract
In order to investigate the effects of different levels of supplementary irrigation and bio-fertilizers on some physiological traits, yield, and essential oil percentage of medicinal plant cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), an experiment was conducted as split-plot in a randomized complete block design ...
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In order to investigate the effects of different levels of supplementary irrigation and bio-fertilizers on some physiological traits, yield, and essential oil percentage of medicinal plant cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), an experiment was conducted as split-plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the research field of Kohgiluyeh and Buyer-Ahmad Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Training Center in 2017. The main plot included supplementary irrigation (complete rainfed conditions, supplementary irrigation at 50% flowering and at the start of seed formation) and the subplot included bio-fertilizer (no phosphorus bio-fertilizer, mycorrhiza Glomus mosseae, phosphorus bio-fertilizer, and combination of mycorrhiza and phosphorus bio-fertilizer). The application of supplementary irrigation with bio-fertilizer increased the total chlorophyll and carotenoid and decreased the proline content. Phosphorus bio-fertilizer also increased catalase enzyme activity in the plant. The effects of supplementary irrigation and phosphorus bio-fertilizer on the number of umbrella per plant, plant height, 1000-seed weight and the number of seeds per umbrella were significant. The highest amount of 1000-seed weight (2.55 g), seed yield (622.4 kg ha-1), biological yield (1252 kg ha-1), and essential oil percentage (54.86%) was obtained in the mycorrhiza treatment together with the phosphorus bio-fertilizer. In general, the results showed that using phosphorus bio-fertilizer, mycorrhiza, and supplementary irrigation can improve physiological traits, yield, and essential oil of cumin under rainfed conditions.
B. Esmaielpour; H. Fatemi; M. Moradi
Abstract
Drought stress, as one of the most important abiotic stresses, plays an important role in decreasing the yield of medicinal plants. In order to investigate the effect of nitric oxide on morphophysiological and biochemical characteristics of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), the native population "Shahre-ray", ...
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Drought stress, as one of the most important abiotic stresses, plays an important role in decreasing the yield of medicinal plants. In order to investigate the effect of nitric oxide on morphophysiological and biochemical characteristics of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), the native population "Shahre-ray", a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design under drought stress conditions with three replications in the research greenhouse of Mohaghegh Ardabili University in 2017. Experimental factors included drought stress at three levels of complete irrigation (drip irrigation at three-day intervals throughout the growing season) and complete stop of irrigation at early flowering stage (60 days after planting at 10-12 leaf stage) and 50% flowering (75 days after planting at 14-15 leaf stage) and nitric oxide spray with sodium nitroprusside at four concentration levels of zero (leaf spray with distilled water), 0.5, 1, and 2 mM. The foliar application was carried out from the eight-leaf stage of the plant, with intervals of two weeks to four times. Results showed that stopping irrigation at both mentioned growth stages significantly reduced plant height, plant dry weight, chlorophylls a and b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, and relative water content, and significantly increased electrolyte leakage rate, leaf proline content, and essential oil percentage. Foliar application of 2 mM nitric oxide significantly increased plant growth under irrigation interruption, especially at 50% flowering. Increasing the concentration of nitric oxide produced the highest essential oil percentage (1.4%) at the early flowering stage under irrigation interruption conditions and significantly increased the content of essential oil components including methyl chavicol, linalool, geranial, geraniol, α-pinene, β-pinene, and myrcene. In general, the results showed that foliar application of nitric oxide at 50% flowering stage under irrigation interruption improved the growth of basil and increased the percentage and components of essential oil via osmotic adjustment, preventing chlorophyll degradation and maintenance of leaf water content.
M. Abdollahi Noroozi; M.R. Moradi Telavat; S.A. Siadat; A. Khodaei Joghan
Abstract
In order to evaluate the effect of zeolite and vermicompost on Marigold (Calendulaofficinalis L.), a field experiment was conducted in 2017 in the research field of Ramin University, Khuzestan, in split plot as a randomized complete block design with three replications. Vermicompost (0, 3, 6, 9 t ha-1) ...
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In order to evaluate the effect of zeolite and vermicompost on Marigold (Calendulaofficinalis L.), a field experiment was conducted in 2017 in the research field of Ramin University, Khuzestan, in split plot as a randomized complete block design with three replications. Vermicompost (0, 3, 6, 9 t ha-1) and zeolite (0, 4, 8 and 12 t ha-1) were investigated as the main factor and sub plot, respectively. Results of variance analysis showed that vermicompost and zeolite had a significant effect on flower yield, biological yield, harvest Index, chlorophylls and carotenoids of leaves, petal carotenoids, nitrogen removal, phosphorus removal, and index of the intensity of the color of the petals. Also, interaction effects of vermicompost and zeolite was significant on all top-mentioned characteristics. The highest flower yield (69.53 g m-2) was obtained at 3 t vermicompost per ha and 12 t zeolite per ha. Maximum biological yield (474.84 g m-2) was achieved at 9 t vermicompost per ha. The highest leaf and petal carotenoids were recorded at 9 t vermicompost per ha and maximum chlorophyll a and b belonged to 9 t vermicompost per ha and 4 t zeolite per ha. The highest soil nitrogen harvest was obtained at 8 t zeolite per ha. Maximum soil phosphorus harvest belonged to 9 t vermicompost per ha and 12 t zeolite per ha. In total, knowing that zeolite is more cost-effective rather than vermicompost, increasing the amount of zeolite consumption can enhance flower yield. In the current research, the best flower performance could be obtained at an optimum amount of 3 t vermicmpost per ha and 12 t zeolite per ha.
A. Rahemi Kahrizaki; R. Rahimi; A. Gholizadeh; E. Gholamalipour Alamdari; H. Saboori; S.H. Davoodi
Abstract
In order to investigate the effects of different levels of vermicompost and nitroxin on the qualitative properties of medicinal plant marigold (Calendula officinalis L.), an experiment was conducted as factorial based on a completely randomized design with four replications in the greenhouse of Gonbad-e-Kavos ...
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In order to investigate the effects of different levels of vermicompost and nitroxin on the qualitative properties of medicinal plant marigold (Calendula officinalis L.), an experiment was conducted as factorial based on a completely randomized design with four replications in the greenhouse of Gonbad-e-Kavos University during 2014-2015. The first factor was vermicompost fertilizer treatment at six levels (0%, 10%, 20%, 40%, 70% and 100%) and the second factor was biological nitroxin fertilizer at two levels of inoculation (25 ml/kg soil) and no inoculation with nitroxin. The results of analysis of variance showed that the effects of nitroxin, vermicompost and their interaction on all traits studied were significant. However, the total phenol content was only significant in the vermicompost treatment. The results showed that the highest total phenol content, chlorophyll a, and total chlorophyll were obtained in 10% vermicompost treatment with nitroxin inoculation. The highest chlorophyll b content was related to 10% vermicompost treatment without nitroxin inoculation. The highest nitrogen content in the plant and catalase content were obtained from 100% vermicompost treatment with nitroxin inoculation, and 100% vermicompost without nitroxin inoculation, respectively. The highest amount of essential oil was obtained from 100% vermicompost treatment with nitroxin inoculation and the lowest was obtained from control treatment without nitroxin inoculation. According to the results, 100% and 70% vermicompost with nitroxin inoculation could be suggested as a suitable treatment for the production of marigold essential oil.
M. Rostami; H. Mohammadi
Abstract
In order to investigate the effects of different temperatures and also plant density on yield and some of morpho-physiological traits of garlic (Allium sativum L.), a split plot experiment was conducted based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications. Experimental treatments were three ...
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In order to investigate the effects of different temperatures and also plant density on yield and some of morpho-physiological traits of garlic (Allium sativum L.), a split plot experiment was conducted based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications. Experimental treatments were three spring planting temperatures (7.4, 9 and 11°C) and four planting densities (20, 40, 60 and 80 plant m-2). Based on results, the interaction effect of experimental treatments on garlic yield, leaf weight, plant height, total chlorophyll and carotenoids was significant whereas for harvest index, number of produced cloves in plant, chlorophyll a and relative water content only the effects of temperature and plant density were significant. The highest garlic yield (921 g.m-2) was observed in planting temperature of 7.4°C with a density of 80 plants m-2, but the lowest yield (317 g.m-2) was obtained in the planting temperature of 11°C with the lowest plant density. The same results were also observed for leaf weight. The highest amount of chlorophyll (2.52 mg.g FW-1) was observed in the planting temperature of 9°C with the density of 20 plants m-2but the planting density of 80 plants m-2 in the planting temperature of 11°C resulted in the lowest amount of total chlorophyll (2.07 mg.g FW-1). The highest harvest index was related to the planting temperature of 7.4°C, and with delay in planting date, this index was reduced significantly. The lowest number of cloves per plant (3.64) was related to the planting temperature of 11°C. Increasing plant density also decreased the number of produced cloves by 14 percent. The best planting temperature for the highest garlic yield was 7.4°C. Although in all of the planting temperature treatments, increasing the plant density resulted in higher garlic yield, the positive effects of higher densities were mainly observed in the planting temperature of 7.4°C.
A. Oftadeh fadafan; M.H. AminiFard
Abstract
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the most important and precious medicinal plants in the world. In order to investigate the effects of different of municipal waste vermicompost on vegetative and reproductive characteristics of leaf and corm of saffron, an experiment was conducted based on a randomized ...
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Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the most important and precious medicinal plants in the world. In order to investigate the effects of different of municipal waste vermicompost on vegetative and reproductive characteristics of leaf and corm of saffron, an experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, University of Birjand during the growing season of 2015. The treatments included four levels of municipal waste vermicompost (0, 5, 10 and 15 t.ha-1). Results showed that municipal waste vermicompost in the second year improved the reproductive characteristics so that the highest flower yield was obtained from 10 t.ha-1 municipal waste vermicompost (22.5g.m-2) and the highest dry stigma yield was obtained from 5 t.ha-1 municipal waste vermicompost (0.44g.m-2). The highest average leaf number (8.36), average fresh weight and dry weight of leaf (0.33 and 0.099 g, respectively) were obtained in plants treated with 15 t.ha-1 municipal waste vermicompost and the highest leaf length (249.3 mm) was obtained at 10 t.ha-1. Application of this organic fertilizer could have a significant effect on chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll content and SPAD. The highest photosynthetic pigments were obtained from application of 10 t.ha-1 municipal waste vermicompost. The characteristics of the corm including the number of cormel, fresh and dry weight of cormel and number of cormel buds were affected by municipal waste vermicompost treatment. The highest number of cormel was obtained from plants treated with 10 t.ha-1. Also results showed that treatment of 5 t.ha-1 of municipal waste vermicompost had the greatest effect on fresh and dry weight of cormel. This treatment improved the number of cormel (33/1) as compared with control (5). Thus, results showed that municipal waste vermicompost had strong impact on vegetative and reproductive characteristics of saffron.
M. Dahmardeh; R. Taji; I. Khammari; T. Hadadi
Abstract
In order to investigate the effects of iron and silver nanoparticles on morphological and physiological traits of borage (Borago officinalis L.), an experiment was conducted as factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications in 2016 at the University of Zabol. The ...
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In order to investigate the effects of iron and silver nanoparticles on morphological and physiological traits of borage (Borago officinalis L.), an experiment was conducted as factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications in 2016 at the University of Zabol. The identification of synthesized nanoparticles was performed using FT-IR infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The treatments included iron and silver nanoparticles with four levels (control, 40, 60, 80 ppm), sprayed together and separately in two stages. The results indicated that spraying iron and silver nanoparticles had significantly different effects on soluble carbohydrates, mucilage, chlorophyll a, carotenoids, leaf and branch number, inflorescence height, flower number, and dry flower weight. Iron and silver nanoparticles (80ppm) had the highest effect on the traits measured. In all traits measured, iron nanoparticles were more effective than silver nanoparticles except chlorophyll b. Simultaneous use of iron and silver nanoparticles showed different effects on all traits, so that the highest significant difference was recorded for iron and silver nanoparticles at 80ppm.
A. Mohammadi; M. Amini Dehaghi; M.H. Fotokian
Abstract
In order to study the application of humic acid and different irrigation regimes on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of three accession of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), an experiment was conducted at the Research Farm of Medicinal Plants, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahed University in 2016. This ...
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In order to study the application of humic acid and different irrigation regimes on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of three accession of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), an experiment was conducted at the Research Farm of Medicinal Plants, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahed University in 2016. This experiment was a factorial split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Experimental factors included three irrigation regimes (full irrigation, irrigation after flowering stage and irrigation after grain filling stage), foliar application of humic acid with two levels (0 and 200 mg/lit) and three cumin accessions (Esfahan, Kashan and Sabzevar). The results of analysis of variance showed that the interaction effect of irrigation regime*humic acid*accession had significant effect on single plant dry weight, grain yield, harvest index, chlorophyll a and total. The results showed that the highest single plant dry weight and grain yield were obtained in complete irrigation and humic acid application. Kashan accession had the highest branch number per plant, dry weight per plant, number of seeds per umbrella, grain yield and biological yield. The highest percentage of essential oil yield was observed in Sabzevar accession. The highest grain yield (533.3 kg/ha) was obtained in complete irrigation with the use of humic acid in Kashan accession. The highest average dry matter yield (230 kg/ha) was obtained in complete irrigation with the use of humic acid for Sabzevar accession. The highest amount of chlorophyll a and total was observed in irrigation after flowering stage and lack of application of humic acid in Sabzevar accession. The application of humic acid was not significant on the traits evaluated. The most efficiency of humic acid was obtained in full irrigation. According to the results of this experiment, it can be stated that full irrigation and application of humic acid can increase the yield of Kashan accession in similar experimental conditions.
M. Aghighi Shahverdi; H. Omidi; S.J. Tabatabaei
Abstract
This research was aimed to investigate the foliar application of selenium, boron and iron on leaf yield, the photosynthetic pigments rate, antioxidant enzymes activity and the steviol glycosides content under sodium chloride stress conditions. The study was conducted in a factorial experiment in Anzali ...
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This research was aimed to investigate the foliar application of selenium, boron and iron on leaf yield, the photosynthetic pigments rate, antioxidant enzymes activity and the steviol glycosides content under sodium chloride stress conditions. The study was conducted in a factorial experiment in Anzali of Guilan Province based on a completely randomized design in three replications in 2105-16. The salinity stress levels were used by sodium chloride at four levels: control (less than 10), 30, 60 and 90 mM, and the foliar application of iron, boron, and selenium was applied. The results showed that the effect of salinity stress and foliar application was significant on the leaf yield, the chlorophyll pigments rate (a, b and total), carotenoid, protein content, antioxidant activity catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and the steviol glycosides composition. The highest total chlorophyll content, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b were obtained in the integrated application of iron, boron and selenium in free-salinity conditions (with means of 39.48, 24.86 and 14.63 mg/g fresh weight, respectively). The highest protein content was observed in the foliar application of iron and selenium at 90 mM NaCl, resulted in an increase of 5.3 times compared to the control treatment. The highest CAT and SOD activities were in the integrated foliar application of three elements and selenium and iron composition at salinity level of 90 mM, increasing the activity of these enzymes by approximately 130 and 11 times, respectively. The highest and lowest rates of rebaudioside A, stevioside, and rebaudioside C were obtained in the integrated application of three elements (iron, boron, and selenium) at salinity levels of 30 mM and non-spraying in 90 mM salinity, respectively. Generally, to achieve a higher amount of steviol glycosides, the integrated application of three elements iron, boron, and selenium and salinity stress up to 30 mM is recommended.
A. Afkari
Abstract
In order to investigate the effects of drought stress and nitrogen fertilizer on some physiological and biochemical characteristics of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), a split-plot experiment was conducted based on randomized complete block design in three replications in the research farm of Islamic Azad ...
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In order to investigate the effects of drought stress and nitrogen fertilizer on some physiological and biochemical characteristics of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), a split-plot experiment was conducted based on randomized complete block design in three replications in the research farm of Islamic Azad University, ArdabilBranch, 2015. The treatments included drought stress (70, 140 and 210 mm of class A evaporation pan) and nitrogen fertilizer at three levels (0, 50 and 100 kg/hectare) respectively. The results showed that the effect of drought stress treatment was significant on the traits investigated. The interaction of drought stress × nitrogen fertilizer had a significant effect on the traits measured, such as chlorophyll a, total chlorophyll, relative water content, dry matter yield, and essential oil yield. In addition, fertilizer treatment caused a significant increase in the physiological characteristics, dry matter yield, and essential oil yield. According to the results, the maximum content of chlorophyll a (2.65 mg/g fresh weight), total chlorophyll (3.42 mg/g fresh weight), relative water content (72.02 percent), dry matter yield (2261.25 kg/hectare), and essential oil yield (7.13 kg/hectare) were obtained for the control treatment and 100 kg of nitrogen per hectare. The maximum content of carbohydrates (3.40 μg/g glucose per fresh weight) and proline (0.681 µmol/g fresh weight) was related to the severe stress treatment. The content of chlorophyll a, b, total, relative water content, carotenoid, and essential oil percent and yield decreased by increasing the drought stress, while the content of carbohydrate and proline increased. Therefore, irrigation at 70 mm evaporation and 100 kg nitrogen fertilizer per hectare could be recommended as the best treatment to achieve the highest levels of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll total, relative water content, dry matter yield, and essential oil yield of basil.
H. Fatemi; B. Esmaielpour; A.A Soltani-Toolarood; A. Nematolah Zadeh
Abstract
Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the earth crust. Silicon has been shown to ameliorate the adverse effects of heavy metals on plants. This research was aimed to investigate the effects of silicon nano-fertilizer nutrition on growth and physiological characteristics of coriander (Coriandrum ...
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Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the earth crust. Silicon has been shown to ameliorate the adverse effects of heavy metals on plants. This research was aimed to investigate the effects of silicon nano-fertilizer nutrition on growth and physiological characteristics of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) under lead stress. The study was conducted in a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design with four replications in the research greenhouse of Mohaghegh Ardabili University during 2016. Experimental treatments included soil contamination by PbCl2 (0, 500, 1000 and 1500 mg/kg soil) and foliar spraying with silicon nano-fertilizer (0, 1.5 and 3 mM). Morphological studied traits including plant height, leaf number and area, fresh and dry weight of root and plant, root and stem diameter, physiological parameters such as photosynthetic pigments, electrolyte leakage, relative water contents, proline, carbohydrates, phenol, antioxidants were measured. Results indicated that lead stress reduced the morphological characteristics such as plant height, plant fresh and dry weight, and stem and root diameter, so that the increased content of lead led to decrease of plant dry weight, root weight, root and stem diameter, root length, plant height, leaf area and dry weight up to 57, 50, 20, 41, 15, 42 and 25%, respectively. Foliar spraying with silicon (3mM) led to improve most of morphological traits of coriander. The content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid and carbohydrate in leaves was increased with increasing lead concentration in soil. However, silicon foliar spraying improved these traits under lead stress. Proline, phenol, flavonoid and antioxidant capacity were significantly increased with increasing concentration of lead up to 1500mg/kg. In general, it can be concluded that the use of silicon nanoparticles for coriander can reduce the negative effects of lead stress to a satisfactory level.
M. Ghesmati; F. Moradinezhad; M. Khayayt
Abstract
Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) is one of the invaluable medicinal plants, widely used in the pharmaceutical industry due to its vitamins, mucilage, antioxidants, alkaloids and phenolic compounds. Calcium, involved in determining the fruit quality, is one of the most important minerals and its role in ...
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Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) is one of the invaluable medicinal plants, widely used in the pharmaceutical industry due to its vitamins, mucilage, antioxidants, alkaloids and phenolic compounds. Calcium, involved in determining the fruit quality, is one of the most important minerals and its role in the improvement of secondary metabolites in plants has been proved. Nevertheless, little information is available regarding the foliar application of this element on jujube plant. Hence, the current research was aimed to investigate the effects of foliar application of calcium nitrate or calcium chloride on antioxidant properties and quality attributes of jujube fruit. The study was carried out in a randomized complete block design. Treatments were included control (distilled water), calcium chloride (0.5 and 1%) and calcium nitrate (0.5 and 1%). The Foliar application was done in two stages; in fruit cell division stage (20 days after full bloom) and in fruit cell growth stage (40 days after full bloom). The results showed that foliar application of calcium nitrate (0.5%) significantly increased the titratable acidity of the fruit. Calcium chloride treatment (0.5%) also increased fruit anthocyanin content compared to the control. The highest antioxidant properties, vitamin C, and calcium content were obtained in calcium chloride (1%) treatment. The maximum values of chlorophyll a, b and total were observed in the leaves treated with calcium nitrate at a concentration of 1%. In general, the results showed that foliar application of calcium salts improved the quality and antioxidant properties of jujube fruits compared to the control.
H. Sartip; I. Khammari; M. Dahmarde
Abstract
Karela (Momordica charantia L.) is a plant with multiple medicinal properties, whose fruits are used to control diabetes. In order to study the effects of biological and chemical fertilizers on quantitative and qualitative properties and secondary metabolites of Karela, an experiment was conducted ...
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Karela (Momordica charantia L.) is a plant with multiple medicinal properties, whose fruits are used to control diabetes. In order to study the effects of biological and chemical fertilizers on quantitative and qualitative properties and secondary metabolites of Karela, an experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with three replications in the Research Field of Agricultural Research Institute of Zabol University. Experimental treatments included: control or 100 percent chemical fertilizer (F1), nitroxin + fertile phosphate 2 (F2), nitroxin + fertile phosphate 2 + 75 percent chemical fertilizer (F3), nitroxin + fertile phosphate 2 + 50 percent chemical fertilizer (F4), nitroxin + fertile phosphate 2 + 25 percent chemical fertilizer (F5), biological nano-fertilizer (F6), biological nano-fertilizer + 75 percent chemical fertilizer (F7), biological nano-fertilizer + 50 percent chemical fertilizer (F8) and biological nano-fertilizer + 25 percent chemical fertilizer (F9). The results of analysis of variance indicated that the effects of application of different chemical fertilizer levels along with biological fertilizers were significant on photosynthetic pigments and fruit performance per area. Comparison of means showed significant superiority of combination of biological and chemical fertilizers compared to separate application of these fertilizers. The highest concentration of chlorophyll a (30.66 mg/gr.fw) and leaf carotenoids (8.91 mg/gr.fw) were obtained in F3 and F4 treatments, respectively. The highest fruit yield was obtained in F4 treatment, showing an increase of 25.33 percent compared to control treatment. The effects of fertilizer treatments were highly significant on production of carnitine, so that the lowest and highest content were obtained in F3 treatment (0.93 mg/gr.dw) and F7 treatment (3.42 mg/gr.dw), respectively. Results of this research showed that application of biological fertilizers including nitroxin and fertile phosphate 2 in combination with 75 and 50 percent of chemical fertilizer had a positive effect on improvement of physiological traits and fruit performance of Karela. Therefore, instead of continuous use of fertilizers, steps could be taken towards sustainable agriculture by optimizing the use of biological inputs.
Z. Sarem; P. Moradi; A. Mohammad-Amouyi
Abstract
Portulaca oleracea L., belonging to the Portulacaceae family, has a high nutritional value due to omega-3 and 6, antioxidants and Tocopherols. In addition, it has beneficial effects on preventing cardiovascular disease and cancer. On the other hand, effect of salicylic acid and micronutrients on growth, ...
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Portulaca oleracea L., belonging to the Portulacaceae family, has a high nutritional value due to omega-3 and 6, antioxidants and Tocopherols. In addition, it has beneficial effects on preventing cardiovascular disease and cancer. On the other hand, effect of salicylic acid and micronutrients on growth, efficiency, physiological traits and resistance to disease, led us to study the effectiveness of this plant hormone and manganese sulfate on some of the traits of this valuable medicinal plant. The project was implemented in Imam Khomeini Higher Education Center of Jihad-e-Agriculture University, Karaj, Iran in 2015. The study was conducted in a factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The influence of different levels of salicylic acid (0, 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 2 millimolar) and manganese sulfate (0, 0.5 and 1 g/lit) was investigated on length of main-stem, number of sub-branches, herbal fresh weight, number of seeds per capsule, number of capsules per bush, chlorophyll, carotenoids and vitamin C. Analysis of variance showed that the treatments studied had significant effects on all morphological and biochemical traits (α≤0.05). The highest number of seeds per capsule (66.44) was obtained through 1 mM of salicylic acid and 1 g/lit of manganese sulfate. The interaction effect of salicylic acid and manganese sulfate indicated that 2 mM of salicylic acid and 1 g/lit of manganese sulfate had the highest carotenoids content (0.071 mg). In general, results showed that appropriate concentrations of salicylic acid and manganese sulfate had positive and significant effect on improvement of the study traits.
